Geography: Features of World's Physical Geography, Physical Features of India

Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. The main objective of geography is the assessment, and explanation of Earth, its variability from place to place, the way places and features transform over time, and the processes responsible for these variations and changes.

It is imperative to know physical geography through its display of environmental diversity. In scientific studies, it is established that Geography is a word that originated from two Greek roots. Geo-denotes to "Earth," and Graphy stands for "picture or writing." Geography is the study of earth as the home of the present-day human being. 

India is a land of diversity in all manners. From culture, economy, and even the landscape of India has diverse elements, all on one landmass. The wide range of physical features of India makes the country a complete geographical study. In fact, India has every possible landscape that the earth has. From cold mountains to arid deserts, vast plains, hot and humid plateau and wide seashores, and tropical islands, the physical features of India cover every terrain.

Millions of years ago, the Peninsular Plateau region was a part of the Gondwana Land which covered India, Australia, South Africa, and South America. Over hundreds of years of shifting landmass and ocean currents broke this landmass into multiple pieces.

One such piece- the Indo-Australian plate started shifting northwards, where it collided with the Eurasian plate. Consequently, this collision caused the landmass to fold and become, what we know as the Himalayas today. Thereafter, many such geological events led to the formation of each of the varied physical features of India.

It’s not easy studying an entire planet. Luckily, geography is split into two main areas that make it easier to wrap your head around:

> Physical geography looks at the natural processes of the Earth, such as climate and plate tectonics. 

> Human geography looks at the impact and behavior of people and how they relate to the physical world. 

Structure of earth:

Earth's structure is divided into three zones that include crust, Mantle, and core. 

> Crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth, and its depth is usually never more than 1 percent of the Earth's radius or averaging 40–50 km, but this varies significantly around the sphere. These are two different types: oceanic and continental. 

> Mantle is the region within the Earth's interior that ranges from 25 to 70 km below the surface, to a depth of 2,900 km. It is composed mainly of silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. At the base of the mantle, temperatures may reach up to 5,000°C. These high temperatures may help to generate convection currents that drive plate tectonics. 

> Core is the very center of the Earth and is composed of iron and nickel. It consists of an outer core (semi-molten) and inner core (solid). The temperature at the very center of the Earth (~6,300 km below the surface) may reach 5,500°C.

Physical Geography:

Physical geography is related to physical science. Physical geography includes the processes and attributes that constitute Earth which incorporate human activities where they interface with the atmosphere. Different branches of Physical geography are climatology, Meteorology, Geomorphology, and Pedageography. Areas of physical geography include:

> Geomorphology: the shape of the Earth’s surface and how it came about

> Hydrology: the Earth’s water

> Glaciology: glaciers and ice sheets

> Biogeography: species, how they are distributed and why

> Climatology: the climate

> Pedology: soils

> Palaeogeography: how the continents have moved over time

> Coastal geography: how the ocean and land affect each other

> Oceanography: the oceans and seas

> Quaternary science: the geography of the last 2.6 million years, including the last ice age

> Landscape ecology: how the landscape affects things like the distribution of plants and animals

> Geomatics: gathering, storing and processing geographic information – for example, making maps

Scientific studies have revealed that physical geographers are more interested in comprehending all aspects of Earth and can be considered generalists because they are qualified to scrutinize a natural environment in its entirety, and how it functions as a unit. In physical geography, researchers study the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Due to the interaction of these elements, numerous changes occur on the earth’s surface. 

Most physical geographers concentrate on advanced study in one or two specialties. 

> Meteorologists focus their studies learning the atmospheric processes that affect daily weather, and they use current data to predict weather conditions. 

> Climatologists are interested in the averages and extremes of long-term weather data, regional classification of climates, monitoring and understanding climatic change and climatic hazard, and the long term impact of atmospheric conditions on human actions and the surroundings.

> The study of the nature, development, and modification of landforms is a field of geomorphology, a major subfield of physical geography. Geomorphologists are excited to know and elucidate variation in landforms, the processes that produce physical landscapes, and the nature and geometry of Earth's surface features. The factors involved in landform development are as varied as the environments on Earth, and include gravity, running water, stresses in the Earth's crust, flowing ice in glaciers, volcanic activity, and the erosion or deposition of Earth's surface materials.

> Biogeographers scrutinize natural and human-modified environments and the ecological processes that influence their characteristics and distributions, including vegetation change over time. They also research and explain the ranges and patterns of vegetation and animal species, seeking to find out the environmental factors that limit or facilitate their distributions.

Several soil scientists are geographers, who are concerned in mapping and analyzing soil types, determining the aptness of soils for certain uses, such as agriculture, and working to conserve soil as a natural resource. Geographers are broadly concerned to study water bodies and their processes, movements, impact, quality, and other features. They may serve as hydrologists, oceanographers, or glaciologists. Many geographers involved with water studies also function as water resource managers, who work to ensure that lakes, watersheds, springs, and groundwater sources are suitable to meet human or environmental needs, provide an adequate water supply, and are free of pollution as possible. Hydrology is merging science. It helps to understand the processes in which water plays an important role in nature through oceans, rivers, and glaciers in sustaining life forms of the earth’s surface.

The perspective of physical geography:

Geographic knowledge and studies often start with locational information. The location of a feature usually uses one of two methods: such as 

absolute location, which is articulated by a coordinate system (or address), or 

Relative location, which recognizes where a feature exists in relation to something else, usually a fairly well-known location.

Physical geographers are more concerned in exploring the environmental features and processes that merge to make a place unique, and they are also involved in the shared characteristics between places. Another feature of the characteristics of places is analyzing the environmental benefits and challenges that exist in a place. When there is a need to know how features are arranged in space, geographers are generally engrossed in two spatial factors. 

> Spatial distribution means the extent of the area or areas where a feature exists. 

> Spatial pattern denotes the arrangement of features in space that are regular or random, clustered together, or broadly spaced. 

It is well established that Earth's features and landscapes are constantly changing in a spatial context. Weather maps demonstrate where and how weather elements change from day to day, over the seasons, and from year to year. Storms, earthquakes, landslides, and stream processes change the scenery. Coastlines may change position because of storm waves, tsunamis, or changes in sea level. Geographers collect, systematize, and analyze different types of geographic data and information, yet a unifying factor among them is a focus on explaining spatial locations, distributions, and relationships.

When appraising the geography of the world, it is recognized that there are seven continents on Earth which include Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. Each has its own unique intermingle of physical features such as mountains, deserts, plains, valleys, forests, and bodies of water. Landforms, soil, and climate significantly influence the plants and animals that can be found in each place.

=> North America is ranked as the third-largest continent in the area in the world. It is situated in the Western Hemisphere(पश्चिमी गोलार्ध्द), it extends from near the North Pole southwards almost to the equator(भूमध्य रेखा). It covers the territory between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans from east to west. Central America, North America is surrounded by the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans. Central America links North America to South America. Although Central America contains far less than 1% of the Earth's surface, it has 7% of the world's biodiversity that includes various plants and animals. The Rocky Mountains expand northward into Canada and southward into Mexico. The main feature of Bodies of Water is the St. Lawrence River which separates parts of the United States from eastern Canada. 

The Great Lakes include Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario form the biggest system of freshwater on Earth. The Panama Canal, located in Central America, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. Areas of Plains include west of the Mississippi River, a region known as the Great Plains, containing some of the world's most productive farmland, Rainforests.

=> South America is considered as the fourth major continent in area. It extends over 7,000 miles in length, it lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Andes Mountains are among the uppermost in the world. They lengthen over 4,500 miles in the western part of South America. Grasslands and Plains are also important parts of this region. 

Mountains and poor soils are unproductive in South America. One exception is the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay. The pampas give large areas of productive soil to grow crops and grazing cattle. The vegetation(वनस्पतियां) closely reflects the climatic conditions in this continent. There is numerous vegetation as the major types of climate. The six Amazon Rainforests are the world's biggest tropical rainforest in Brazil. 

Bodies of Water in South America include The Amazon River which is the second-longest river in the world. The climate of South America is warm because it lies near the equator. Earthquakes along the active Pacific Rim are a primary expression of these forces, and great earthquakes (Magnitude [M] > 8) happen somewhere along the continent's western margin every few years.

=> Africa is important and the second largest continent in area. To the north, Africa is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea. To the east, it stretches out the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. On the west, Africa is encircled by the Atlantic Ocean. 

When describing physical geography, The Sahara Desert, which covers most of North Africa, is the world's major desert. It separates Africans north and south because of the dry, sandy areas and it is difficult to cross. Beyond the south, Africa's land also covers the Kalahari Desert. Savannas; Africa's region covers savanna land where tall, uncultivated grasses grow with some trees. Tropical Rainforests in Central and West Africa are hot and humid which get 60 to 100 inches of rainfall a year. 

The Atlas Mountains are found on the northwest edge of Africa. The Great Rift Valley runs through the highlands of Ethiopia and Kenya, to the east. Bodies of Water; Africa has numerous major rivers such as the Nile, Congo, Zambezi, and Niger. The Nile, the world's longest river, flows 4,150 miles from Central Africa through Egypt into the Mediterranean. Important lakes in Africa are Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Nyasa. Major Islands are Madagascar, Zanzibar, and Pemba; Comoros; Mauritius; Reunion, Seychelles (all in the Indian Ocean); Cape Verde, Fernando Po, Principe, Sao Tome, and Annobon.

=> Europe is ranked as the second smallest continent in the land area of the world. Europe and Asia actually both share the same landmass. This landmass is so big that geographers have divided it into two continents. Great Britain, Ireland, and Iceland are island nations in the Atlantic Ocean that are considered part of Europe. According to Geographers, this area is known as Europe a "peninsula of peninsulas(land surrounded by water on three sides)".

There are several mountain ranges in Europe. They include the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennines, and Balkans. Europe has many major bodies of water. In the north are the Baltic and North Seas. In the south, there are the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Europe also has many major rivers, including the Danube, Rhine, Loire, Rhone, Elbe, Vistula, and Volga. The climate and vegetation in this continent vary from the cold, barren, tundra, and sub-arctic starches of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, to the warm shrub-covered Mediterranean coasts of Italy, Spain, and Greece.

=> Asia is known as the biggest continent in area wise in the world. Presently, it is domicile to two-thirds of the world's inhabitants. Because of its huge size and the multiplicity of its cultures, geographers consider the region of Asia as being composed of numerous distinct regions. The Middle East lies at the junction of three continents, connecting Africa, Asia, and Europe. It has the most important waterways in the world, the Suez Canal, which cut down the traveling distance between Europe and Asia.

In the region of the Middle East, the major area is covered by desert. Most of the Arabian Peninsula is occupied by 900,000 square miles of the Arabian Desert. There are several important rivers in the Middle East such as Jordan, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers. Other main bodies of water adjoining the Middle East include the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. The Middle East has about half of the world's famous oil reserves.

Northern Asia is covered by Russia, which extends from Eastern Europe to the Pacific. Russia is the world's biggest country in the area. Although the majority of its inhabitants are located in Europe, most of Russia's land area is in Asia. Siberia, in north-eastern Russia, is a cold area with forests. Northernmost Russia is tundra, where the land is ice-covered most of the time in the year. Afghanistan, a dry mountainous country in Central Asia, separates Iran and Russia from Pakistan. The Ural Mountains separate European and Asian Russia, while the Pamir Mountains separate Russia from China. In a major part of Russia, there are long, cold winters and short mild summers.

East Asia consists of three important countries namely China, Korea, and Japan. China is the third-largest country in the world area wise. Korea is a neck of land extending from the north-eastern coast of China. Japan consists of four main islands and a number of smaller islands, separated from the Asian mainland by the Sea of Japan. Important rivers are the Hwang Ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtze in China. These river valleys were the origin of early civilizations. China's southern and western borders are ringed by the Himalayan, Kunlun, and Tianjin Mountains. To the west is the mountainous plateau of Tibet. About 85% of Japan is covered by mountains and hills. Mount Fuji, an extinct volcano, is the highest and most famous mountain in Japan. The Gobi Desert is situated in the north of China in Mongolia.

The Indian 'subcontinent’, approximately the size of the United States, appears a large triangle extending out of Asia into the Indian Ocean. Southeast Asia consists of a peninsula and a series of islands on the southeast comer of the Asian mainland. The Himalayas, located in the north of India, are the topmost mountains in the world. They separate the Indian subcontinent from the rest of Asia. The main rivers of the Indian subcontinent are the Indus and Ganges. The Mekong, Salween, and Irrawaddy Rivers are the main rivers in Southeast Asia. The most important climatic aspect is the monsoons. These vicious winds blow over the region and bring heavy rain in the summer. Monsoon rains give water for crops and support life, but also cause flooding, landslides, property damage, and even death.

=> Australia, bordered by the Indian and Pacific Oceans, is cut off from Asia by the Arafura and Timor Seas. It is the smallest continent in the world. It is also the lowest, the flattest and the driest. The highest point on the Australian mainland is Mount Kosciuszko, New South Wales, at 2228 meters above sea level. The lowest point is the dry bed of Lake Eyre, South Australia, which is 15 meters below sea level. The mainland continents are divided into the western plateau, eastern highlands, and central lowlands. The central lowland stretches from the Gulf of Carpenteria through the great artesian basin to the Murray darling plains.

Nearly 40 percent of the total coastline length comprises island coastlines. As an island nation, coastlines play a vital role in defining national, state, and territory boundaries. Almost 20 percent of Australia's landmass is desert. Climatic zones range from tropical rainforests, deserts, and cool temperature forests to snow-covered mountains. The central regions of Australia are mostly deserts. The world's biggest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, is located in Australia. 

Droughts can occur in all parts of Australia and they are most economically damaging in south-eastern Australia, an area encompassing about 75% of Australian populace and much of its agriculture. Thunderstorms are more frequent over northern Australia. In terms of water vapor content, Australia is a dry continent.

=> Antarctica is the world's southernmost continent and wraps the South Pole. It is encircled by the Southern, Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Since 2000, most geographers call this the Southern Ocean. Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. About 98% of this continent is enclosed by ice, averaging one mile in thickness.

In Antarctica, The landmass is made up of 98% ice sheet with the remaining 2%, barren rock. The standard height of Antarctica is between 2000 and 4000 m with resident mountain ranges up to 5000 m in elevation. Roughly half of the coastal areas are ice-free. In the winter, temperatures range from -10°C to -30°C in the coastal regions. Because of their higher elevation and the distance from the ocean, summer temperatures range anywhere from -20°C to -60°C, in the winter.

Human geography:

Areas of human geography include:

> Cultural geography: how things like religion, language, and government vary across the world

> Development geography: standards of living and quality of life across the world

> Historical geography: how people have studied and thought about geography in the past

> Population geography: how populations grow in different places and people migrate

> Urban geography: cities and built-up areas

Much of human geography examines the relationship of other fields to geography, such as economics, health, tourism, and politics. 

Physical Features of India:

The physical features of India can be divided into six broad categories according to their physiographic forms:

=> Himalayan Mountains:

The northernmost landscape of the country highlights the fold mountains of the Himalayas. Though geologically young, the Himalayan Mountains are the loftiest and the most rugged of the world. Since they stretch across 2500 KM from Kashmir in the north, through Arunachal Pradesh in the North East, these mountains form an arc. This helps keep the cold arctic winds from reaching the tropical landmass.

=> Northern Plains:

The three major river systems of India- Indus, Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries have fed the foothills of the Himalayas. Since these river basins had a huge amount of alluvial deposits from these glacial rivers, these regions grew fertile over hundreds of years and led to the Northern Plains. Furthermore, the Northern Plains can again be divided into three significant parts-The Punjab Plains, The Ganga Plains, The Brahmaputra Plains.

=> Peninsular Plateau:

The oldest landmass of India, the Peninsular Plateau was the result of the tectonic shifts of the Gondwana Land. This massive plateau area is further divided as-

> The Central Highlands - lying on the north of the Narmada River and covering a large part of the Malwa Plateau.

> The Deccan Plateau - a triangular landmass lying on the south of the Narmada River. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats border the Deccan plateau on its eastern and western sides respectively.

=> Indian Desert:

The undulating sandy plains covered with sand dunes on the western fringes of the Aravali Hills comprise the Indian Desert. With rainfall as low as 150 mm per annum, this region is the aridest in the country and thus, low on greenery. The states of Rajasthan and northwestern parts of Gujarat collectively form the desert region.

=> Coastal Plains:

Right on the outer edges of the Indian peninsula, lies the narrow strips of the coastal plains. These sea fed regions cover the shores of the Bay of Bengal in the East and the Arabian Sea on the West.

=> Islands:

Two groups of islands lie on the two oceans surrounding the main landmass of the subcontinent. These most likely complete the physical features of India. And, the island region is divided by the mainland as well as the seas. Thus forming two major island states- The Lakshadweep(Malabar Coast), The Andaman & Nicobar Islands( Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean).

Conclusion

To summarize, Physical geography is imperative for understanding various things about countries and regions of the world. It is the branch of science that deals with processes and patterns in the natural environment such as hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere. Physical geography is a scientific discipline that addresses the distribution of natural features and processes within a spatial, or geographical, reference frame.